A Letter to God by Gregorio Lopez Y Fuentes Essay

A Letter to God by Gregorio Lopez Y Fuentes - Essay Example However, the expected rain turned to hail and soon destroyed all his crops which placed his family in an anticipated hunger throughout the year. Thinking about his God whom he knows would provide for their needs, the farmer then writes a letter to him which he sent through the mail. In the amusement of the postman and the postmaster, the former tried to correspond with the farmer but found the task to be challenging when he opened the letter and found out that the farmer was asking for a hundred pesos in order to re-sow the fields and to live by while they wait until harvest time. The postmaster then made his best to raise the money but was able to just send seventy pesos. When the farmer received his mail, he was disappointed when he opened it seeing it was not the full amount he asked for. So he made another letter telling God he just received seventy pesos and asking him to send the full amount of a hundred pesos because he badly needs it. Moreover, he asked the money not to be se nt through the mail because the post office employees are crooks, thinking the thirty peso deficit was taken by them.

Natural rights in John Lockes, the second treatise on government Essay

Natural rights in John Lockes, the second treatise on government - Essay Example As such, everyone is entitled to enforce natural law in order to uphold these rights. Secondly, he purports that as an individual ventures into societal relationship with others, he trades what goods he possesses for goods he does not, and as such forms a reason to formulate methods to facilitate the trade of goods, such as the use of money, since money is non-perishable in contrast with food. As such, when money is injected into the system, individuals may pertain to give up their natural rights in order to be governed by a select group of people who exist solely to protect their welfare and property. These representatives work by introducing a system of laws and rules that expand over the societies they govern, and are in charge of enforcing them. However, they must only adhere to the interests of the societies at large, and hence, are at the complete disposal of the individuals and are subject to replacement at the people’s discretion. Locke thus emphasizes a Laissez Faire style of government which respects tolerance and moral values announced by natural rights than a strict measure of communism or monarchy. His political ideology promotes distinct sense of social awareness and respect by all of natural law. Argument against John Locke’s theories Locke’s focus on individual precedence over societal matters suggests two things. The first pertains to the regulation of civil society in that the people realize a need for preservation of their material belongings such as house and property, a measure they cannot administer individually by way of natural right as that might render their judgement partial and unjust. As such, they resort to giving up their natural rights so a body of executives can adjudicate on their behalf. This is because if individuals resorted to upholding their natural rights themselves against those who wronged them, only the strongest would survive. By letting an executive handle the adjudication for them, the judgement is deemed impartial. Of course, in conjunction with this right, Locke states that every child is born free, independent and pure, â€Å"a subject of no country or government† (Locke 118). However, in order to be respectful of other’s rights he must first attain majority and then make an informed decision as to which community he must partake in, for being part of one would mean his giving up of some natural rights in order to follow the customs of the community. Thus, before he attains that majority, the child is essentially without affiliation, under the care of his father, and rendered â€Å"stateless in the very state he was born† (Klausen 763). This gives rise to patriarchy which defines the child’s governing system resulting from tacit consent. Moreover, Locke suggests that tacit consent is binding on the individual as it forms part of his contract within the community he is born, but as the child grows up into majority, he is allowed to leave the p atriarchy to which he has adhered and choose a community to consensually give up his natural rights to. This effectively declares tacit consent as NOT binding. Moreover, Locke’s policy of independence and attainment of natural liberty is only possible if there is â€Å"

Shugo Daimyo Muromachi Period. Japan in the Muromachi Age Essay

Shugo Daimyo Muromachi Period. Japan in the Muromachi Age - Essay Example The central component in this period was Heian duration that was later followed by war-oriented governments. Despite these changes, the government of the people continued but authority was vested on military Daimyo class. The medieval period is the most significant period in the history of Japan. The Kamakura period lasted between 1185 and 1333. This was the origin of the class rule system. However, civil affairs arbitration was the authority of the imperial court. After the defeat of Taira, the Yorimoto established family capital on the eastern side of Kamakura. Yoritomo was bestowed with the name Shogun. Moreover, clan disputes were rife at this period especially the Hogen and Heiji disturbance. Kamakura period was because of defeat of Taira family at the civil war. Yoritomo goals were on solid defense of the administration and for this purpose established the Shugo. Shugo administrative area was province and acted as military governors. They played oversight role though they also collected taxes. This form of administration lasted until the later days of 19th century. Shugo later transformed into Daimyo, whose significance was felt throughout the 15th century1. Some Japanese at this period possessed warrior qualities while majority engaged in farming activities. The other most important event in Japanese history was change in government structure. Government was warrior like in nature and acquired enormous amount of wealth. Shugo incorporated culture in their military rule. Art was prominent in this period while religion was Buddhism. The Buddhist teachers taught culture to all people. This lasted for a long period before the advents of Christianity. Monks were also essential in the military rule as chief advisors. Moreover, they influenced traditional values of this culture and activities of Shugo contemporaries. In medieval age, bows and horses were used for military purpose. Samurai were always ready for any battle and were highly focused and disciplined as taught by Yabusame. Initially, warrior society was based on family lineage and gifts, mostly land, was given to Samurai who served as Shugo. This meant that the vassal continued to serve lordship in their lifetime. This period was characterized with forming of alliances between warriors to guarantee source of livelihood. There was also reward for winning alliance and eminence was acquired. There was no family respect or recognition in a battle and in fact, one had to kill a family member if it was necessary to ensure sustenance of authority. Moreover, Shugo shifted allegiance and Daimyo were based on outcomes of the battle. In the last decades of 13th century, Kamakura came under crossfire. Mongol invaded them though they were unsuccessful due to heavy wind. The second invasion saw the neglect of the warrior. Ultimately, financial problems coupled Kamakura government and were faced by an invasion that they were unable to resist. Imperial authority was weakened but emperor legacy was maintained. Rivalry existed between the north represented by Samurai family and south led by emperor. This rivalry took close half a century. Finally, Ashikaga established unity between these two rival groups. The Muromachi existed from 1336 to 1573 and this period was characterized by social disorders, conflict, and uprisings. This characterized second period of Japanese history. This period is known as Muromachi or Ashikaga. Cities were continuously destroyed due to these occurrences. The dominant thing was Shoguns power based on coalition of Shugo who controlled land and powers in the province. As a result, these warriors became wealthy and feudal system, Daimyo was established. Success of establishment of

Cartier Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Cartier - Essay Example The stimuli related to the brand that evokes various behavioural responses of the consumers are due to various features of the brand which are namely, the communications of the brand, the packaging of the products offered under the brand names and the market environment created by the brand strategies of the company (Aaker, 1996, p.47). Brand experience is of high importance to the companies in today’s market as the brand experience enjoyed by the customers creates an attachment towards preferred brands and hence, develops brand loyalty. In order to sustain business growth in the competitive markets, the companies put additional focus in including brand experience in their market strategies. By acquiring a loyal set of customer through brand experience, the companies have been able to acquire and maintain substantial market share in the industry. This piece of work includes a review of the literature on brand experience and the marketing strategies adopted by the companies in order to develop their brand experience (Aaker, 1997, p.352). The aspect of brand experience has been discussed in context to Cartier luxury brand. Literature Review The age of globalization has opened up the markets in several economies and the companies have expanded in the global markets in order to tap the potential market demand. The increase in market competition has increased the bargaining power of the customers. Over the years, the companies have observed changing trends in the customer behaviour in accepting brands from the available market options. Thus understanding the customer behaviour is important from the point of view of the companies in order to sustain their market shares. Brand experience has emerged as an important consideration for addressing the behaviour of the customers and their responses to various brands that they use in today’s competitive market. The behaviour of the customers related to brand experience depends on not one but several features o f the brand like brand personality, brand community, brand attachment, brand trust and brand love (Ariely, 1998, p.36). The brand experience could be conceptualised as the generation of feelings, sensations, emotion of the customers in response to the brand related stimuli. The concept of brand experience emerges with the classification of customer’s experience into sensory, affective, intellectual, behavioural features of the customer’s behaviour (Schmitt, Zarantonello and Brakus, 2009, p.65). The feelings generated in the customer due to the sensory stimulus refer to the customer’s response to the aesthetic features of the product. The sensory emotions within the customer are generated by the focus on beautifying the product through better packaging. The better packaging in comparison to others provides as sense of assurance and belief to the consumer. The affective component of brand experience generates different customer behaviour as a result of the underly ing belief and ideas of the customer on the particular brand. The affective behaviour of the customer is based on the direct and indirect interaction that the customer had in relation to the bran

Conflict Resolution Styles in Organizational Behaviour Essay Example for Free

Conflict Resolution Styles in Organizational Behaviour Essay Conflict is a process that every one of us has experienced throughout our lifes. There are various definitions of conflicts as described by different authors but generally, conflict is a process whereby one individual’s interests is opposed or negatively affected by the other party (McShane et al. 2010). Workplace and organisational conflicts are usually more complex. Isenhart and Spangle (2000) points out that at the beginning the conflict may start because of improper placement of workers and their responsibilities in a workplace, but it may get worse if they faces unfair rules, ineffective management, unclear responsibilities or too much work assigned. Organisational conflicts can result in many possible outcomes, the negatives ones such as damaged employee relations, violence, increased tension between bosses and employees but it can have positive outcomes too such as increased employee-cohesiveness and increased motivation. How it will be achieved will be discussed through the elements of conflict and will be listed in greater details. Ways in which people approach conflict Avoiding Avoiding is probably the fastest way of resolving a conflict but at the same time it is not the best way because most of the time the avoider will remain unhappy even after the conflict. It does not permanently resolve the conflict (McShane et al. 2010) and in my opinion it is just ‘postponing’ the problem to have it solved at a later date. McCollum et al. (2009) states that the person who is avoiding thinks that confronting the conflict will bring more trouble than it is worth. The avoider also decides to not deal with the conflict because he or she might not have the confidence to do so. This seems like the more popular choice amongst the five ways in which people approach conflict based on my experiences because people simply do not want unnecessary trouble or aggravate the problem, especially if it is a minor issue. Avoiding pays no attention in concerns of either self or others (Kotthoff Spencer-Oatey 2008). This is the least-sought option amongst the five approach es but however, McCollum et al. (2009) suggests that avoiding can be a tactical approach when the other party has more strength and authority over you; and/or the avoiding the conflict will bring little or no devastating consequences. Problem-Solving I deemed this to be the most effective way in resolving organisational conflicts because both parties will benefit if they manage to find a double-win solution to the problem. This is considered to be the most desirable approach to conflict as there are no negative impacts at all. Only positive results will surface. Runde Flanagan (2009) suggests that there might be a link between avoiding and problem-solving. Because many people tend towards avoidance, they often rush through problem solving and immediately use the first solution that they can think of so as to quickly get over the conflict, without any beneficial solutions. The key in using problem-solving as an approach to resolve conflicts lies in having patience to create multiple potential solutions. Careful reflection and consideration will progress into agreements that are both satisfying and successful (Runde Flanagan 2009). Therefore when undergoing problem-solving, both parties must not rush to a solution immediately or else the solution may backfire or do not satisfy both parties’ needs. Three strategies that help people manage conflict Before discussing about the three different strategies that help people to manage conflict, the strategies used are basically divided into three categories and they are interest-based, rights-based and power-based (Jameson 2001). Three different strategies from the three categories will be discussed respectively. Jameson (2001) advises that all resolutions of disputes and conflicts should start with a interest-based strategy, and if it does not resolves the conflict, it is followed by a rights-based strategy and if conflict persists, power-based strategy is then applied. Mediation (Interest-based) Jameson (2001) suggests that mediation is a form of ADR (Alternative Dispute Resolution). Research has shown that interest-based strategies such as mediation had the best long-termed results such as improved relationship between parties, greater commitment to solutions and reduced future conflicts from happening. This is why involved parties in a conflict should use this approach as it reaps the most benefits. Even though there are many theories and various methods underlying mediation, it is generally defined as an intervention by a neutral third party which facilitates the process but allow participants in the conflict to control the outcome (Jameson 2001). Depending on the severity of the conflict, the mediator is to provide useful information in legal issues, help the participants into perspective thinking, provide a guide in finding the most satisfying and realistic settlement, help to improve the working/personal relationship between participants, or engage in some combination of the above methods. Inquisitorial Intervention (Rights-based) This describes intervention by a person of a higher authority; in most cases is the manager, who will make a final decision. Managers who adopt this strategy allow employees more or less control over presentation of their arguments before deciding on an appropriate solution (Jameson 2001). Because the third party(manager) listens to every party’s arguments before making a judgment, the manager acts as a ‘judge’ and this usually results in a win-lose situation, unlike Mediation which results in a win-win situation most of the time. Employees are given the opportunity to present their arguments and influence the final decision and this result in higher amount of fairness and satisfaction with outcomes. Employees involved in the conflict usually agree that the outcome decided by the third party is fair, but it could be better if they are able to retain the outcome control. Restructuring (Power-based) This is the more realistic popular method amongst power-based strategies because they are efficient (at least in the short run) and it follows a problem-solving procedure that is actually part of the managerial role (Jameson 2001). A powerful third party restructures the work and responsibilities of employees in order to solve problems. For example if employees does not see eye-to-eye with one another and it affects efficiency or quality of work produced, restructuring may simply solve this issue even though parties involved are not satisfied but at least they will not be able to see each other, proving restructuring to be a efficient method in the short run. This method may be efficient if time issues are being involved, such as the organisation needs to achieve a certain target by a certain date. Influence of culture in conflict resolution styles The three cultural values dimensions that are popularly discussed are individualism-collectivism, power distance and high-low context (McShane et al. 2010). Low/high context: refers to the amount of information contained in a clearly-expressed message versus implied message (Adair et al. 2004). Low-context culture is direct and negotiations are analytical and fact-based, while high-context culture is indirect and high-context negotiators tend to use an indirect communication method with usually contains implied meanings. An example of a low-context culture would be the United States of America and a high-context culture will be Japan (Adair et al. 2004). Individualism/Collectivism: Individualism refers to a society where the relationships between people are loose and they are expected to look after themselves or their immediate families only. Collectivism which is the opposite, refers to a society that people focus on being harmonious and emphasize on cohesiveness within themselves. In organisational context, individualism means individuals only care about their own goals and prefer to work alone and collectivism means working harmoniously in a teams and it emphasizes on teamwork. Power distance: McShane et al. (2010) defines power distance as the degree of importance that people place on status and power to control. Basically it means that human inequality may occur in many fields such as status, wealth, power, rules etc. In organisational settings it refers between superiors/managers and employees mainly. In a high power distance working environment, employees tend to just do their work without raising doubts or question their bosses, due to fear in the difference of their power, low power distance means otherwise, where employees and their superiors work hand in hand to resolve issues. A few decades ago, managers can spend up to twenty percent of their time in resolving conflicts. Nowadays, conflicts are generally much more complex and take up more time to resolve due to technological advances, world’s exponential growth rate and globalization which led to increase contacts between people of many different cultures (Kotthoff Spencer-Oatey 2008). This suggests that our modern world has an increase of numbers of cultural conflicts and they are usually hard to resolve due to the extreme range of differences in thinking, values, ethics etc between individuals of different cultures. To further elaborate on this point, Brigg (2008) states that most experts in this field now come to an agreement that culture frames the experiences of conflict of people, their reactions and responses to other people in conflict, and the types of strategies they might consider to manage or otherwise address disputes. Therefore when facing against a cultural conflict issue, one must understand that the other party does not grow up in the same environment as him/her, had not been taught the same teachings and values since young. To put in simpler terms, the definition of what is right and what is correct might not be the same between the two parties. This also explains why it is so difficult in applying conflict resolution styles when it comes to cultural conflicts because it is hard to accept the other party’s â€Å"correct† values which may be the â€Å"wrong† values of one as both of them have been gorged those values since young in their growing up environment. Conclusion Two ways of conflict-handling styles were discussed and avoiding can be a good approach sometimes despite many of its negativity and although problem-solving is the best approach, it cannot be rushed and many potential solutions must be raised in order to finding the best solution. Three strategies from three different categories of conflict resolution styles were discussed and despite the major differences in terms of popularity of usage and way of handling, all the three strategies can produce effective results in organisational settings if they were applied in the correct circumstances. Three cultural values dimensions were discussed and it was also explained that influence of culture in conflict resolution styles remains fundamentally significant and it is currently the most challenging in conflict resolution.

Advertising, Social and Economic Costs and Benefits Essay Example for Free

Advertising, Social and Economic Costs and Benefits Essay Tesco is in private sector, but it is a PLC, a public limited company, this is an international business, also it is in primary. Tesco is doing service by providing food to its customers. Tesco exist, so people can buy food, they do their own products also, this company exists for making profit. Tesco makes profit by selling its products or making deliveries to customers. Tesco is trying to achieve , to be the best company Our vision is for Tesco to be most highly valued by the customers we serve, the communities in which we operate, our loyal and committed staff and our shareholders; to be a growth company; a modern and innovative company and winning locally, applying our skills globally. Tesco is a global business. Tesco is a public limited company (PLC) this means that the owners of Tesco are the shareholder. North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service- This is a public sector organization, it doesn’t make profit, because it’s service costs more than the amount of money people pay them for fire. This organization exist so when the people have fire or extreme situations they call fire and rescue service and they help them. In 2004 North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Authority developed a new focused Vision to reflect their broader function within the modernisation agenda. Over the 10 years to 2014, in North Yorkshire and the City of York, 125 more people will still be alive through the work of the new Fire and Rescue Service. This will be due to the Service having significantly reduced the likelihood and severity of fire and other emergencies. We will achieve this through the dedication of our staff working in partnership with other agencies in the community. This is a local company because it is North Yorkshire. Simply summarised as The term 125 Alive captures the Authoritys Vision in one simple phrase. It means that 125 people who might otherwise have died in an accident will be alive because of preventative action taken by the Fire and Rescue Service working in partnership with other agencies. The target will be achieved by a steady reduction year on year in fatalities in road traffic collisions and fires. The aims and objectives of this organization are to help people to rescue them away from dangerous things, and also to remove the fire away, so the people will be in safe. They are trying their best , so they will be the best from their competitors. P2 â€Å"describe the different stakeholders who influence the purpose of two contrasting organisations† M1 â€Å"explain the points of view from different stakeholders seeking to influence the strategic aims and objectives of two contrasting organisations† Stakeholders: A person, group, or organization that has direct or indirect stake in an organization because it can affect or be affected by the organizations actions, objectives, and policies. Key stakeholders in a business organization include creditors, customers, directors, employees, government (and its agencies), owners (shareholders), suppliers, unions, and the community from which the business draws its resources. Stakeholder Grouping| Interest| Tesco PLC| NY Fire amp; Rescue Service| Consumers/customers| They want high quality, value for money products. Customers often identify with the brands they buy. They like to see improvements that give them better value for money. | People who want to buy high quality food or other staff| This are the local people in the local area who wants to take the fire out| Employees/workers| The company provides them with a salary/money to live (a livelihood). They seek security, promotion opportunities, job satisfaction and rewards. | This are the workers in the stores, they are interested in security| This are the firemen, their job is to rescue people and to remove the fire for safety. | Suppliers| They want steady orders and payment for supplying stock. They also want to feel valued. People which supply different staff like water, food, drinks etc. They do it because they are sure that Tesco Is a successful business and if they are successful so they have a lot of profit , and suppliers are sure in Tesco and they have more orders cause Tesco has more customers| People, who supply the equipment, like the extinguishers. | Owners| They may be a sole trader or in a partnership. In a company it would be the shareholders. Often thought to be the most important stakeholder. They see themselves as the principal risk taker. They want to see share of profit increasing and the value of the business rising. So the owner of Tesco is the shareholders, they are interested in success of their business, they want Tesco to be the best, as every shareholder does. | The government is the owner of the NYFRS. The government wants to succeed this organization in their job, so people will be in safe. | Trade Unions| They represent the views of the employees of the business. They want higher wages and better conditions. | They want Tesco to be successful, because if Tesco is successful, so workers conditions will be better, because this stakeholder is interested in employees comfort and life. They are interested in firemen success and conditions, wages etc. So if firemen start to rescue people or removing fire more and more, so they could get salary and this is good for Trade Union, this is what they want. | Employer Associations| They are the employer’s equivalent of the TU. They represent the employer’s interests in specific associations. | Basically this stakeholder is equivalent Trade Union, they have quite the same interests, they also take care about the workers, but in specific way. | They are looking for the comfort of the firemen, in specific associations. Local communities| The actions of businesses can have a big effect on communities around them. They want improved facilities and provision of jobs. | Local communities wants Tesco to be considerate about the people who live nearby, considerate about the emotions and feelings. | This are the people who live near by the fire rescue service base, so when they have an emergency call they start to drive fast and a lot of noise etc. People want them to be considerate about them and to think about them, that people could be sleeping now, or doing something different when they can’t be disturbed. Governments| They want successful organisations which contribute to economic growth and provide jobs and tax revenue. They also like businesses that contribute towards the welfare of the country’s society. | Government wants Tesco to succeed, so the economy of the country would improve more and more, and more employees would be needed as the company will grow, so less unemployed people would be. | The government wants to succeed this organization in their job, so people will be in safe, and the country’s level of popularity would increase. Tesco: 1) Owners 2) Workers 3) Supplies 4) Customers 5) Government NYFRS: 1) Government 2) Workers 3) Suppliers 4) Customers 5) Local communities D1 â€Å"Evaluate the influence different stakeholders exert in ONE organization Tesco: 1) Directors To be as strong in everything we sell as we are in food Directors are the stakeholders which have the most influence of the Tesco, because they can do everything what they want with the business, because it is theirs. They have ultimate control and power. If they want for example they can change the name from â€Å"Tesco† to something else etc. 2) Workers- To build our team so that we create more value Workers are the second most influence stakeholders in Tesco. This is because if there is no workers so the business can’t grow at all and it will fail, no workers, means no job done. But also if the workers would leave the Tesco, it is not such a big problem, because â€Å"Tesco† is well known successful business, and a lot of employees want to work for them. 3) Customers- To grow the UK core Customers are 3rd important stakeholders which have influence on Tesco. So if there would not be customers the business would not be able to make profit at all, so customers are also really important part of each business. If the Tesco loses the customers , so they will go to theirs opponent businesses, such as â€Å"Asda† and â€Å"Sainsbury’s†, and this could be because their would be not enough workers, or the customer service would be at low level. 4) Suppliers- To put our responsibilities to the communities we serve at the heart of what we do. Suppliers are last important stakeholders with influence on Tesco, because if the suppliers wont supply any products so Tesco would have to use its own products, but that wouldn’t make a lot of profit, and won’t be sustainable. If â€Å"Tesco† loses the suppliers, it is not a problem, because there are a lot of suppliers which are free and waiting for their chance, but if the suppliers were too good, this would be sad. P3 â€Å"Describe how two businesses are organised† TESCO: Span of control: The number of subordinates that a manager or supervisorcan directly control. This number varies with the type ofwork: complex, variable work reduces it to six, whereasroutine, fixed work increases it to twenty or more. Chain of Command: The  order  in which  authority  and  power  in an  organization  is wielded and delegated from  top management  to every employee  at every  level  of the organization. Instructions flow downward along the chain of command and accountability  flows  upward. The chart shows that Tesco has a different level of workers in its organization. These shows the mangers and members, whom they control. The managers take responsibility of what their assistants do. Manager of one job can’t control the assistants of other job manager, so everything is equal. The boss of everyone is the store director, after him is regional manager as you can see, and later is the store manager, and only than other managers of different jobs, and on the bottom of the chart are all of the assistants of all of the mangers. So in Tesco and in all other businesses the member of the working team can’t control anyone above him, or anyone or the same line, he can control only the people who are under him. It is very hard to control big organization. So, it will be better to break the organization into smaller parts. There are 4 main ways of breaking a business down into smaller sections: 1) By Function- What is the sense of each section? 2) By Location- Where is the section situated on the map? 3) By Product- Which service does the section belong to? 4) By Process- A customer staying approached on the other customers who are interested in Tesco. There are 2 main types of organizational structure: 1) Tall 2) Flat The difference between this two is that tall has more levels than flat , however in Flat Mangers there are wider span of control. . So, we can say that Tesco has Tall structure, because in Tesco’s Organizational Chart has a lot of levels. North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service: It is really hard to understand who is who, who is controlling whom, the table is a bit messy, and so I created a better one for you: But on Structure of Commission we can see that Director General has two lines. First, is that he should control 3 Directors, Corporate and Forestry, Central Services (HR, IT, Finance), Business Units, Forest Research. The North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service is looking so different comparing to Tesco’s. . In Forestry Commission General Director works with more employees, however in Tesco Director works just with managers. But The North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service’s type of organizational structure is Tall, because it has many lines. And Forestry Commission is organization by Location, because they are separated on different locations, they have 3 directs in same country. Task 2 1) Finance addresses the ways in which individuals, business entities and other organizations allocate and use monetary resources over time. It helps Tesco with finance. 2) Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large. ) The act or process or producing, bringing forth, or exhibiting to view; as, the production of commodities, of a witness. That which is produced, yielded, or made, whether naturally, or by the application of intelligence and labor; as, the productions of the earth; the productions of handicraft; the productions of intellect or genius. 4) Customer S ervice is the commitment to providing value added services to external and internal customers, including attitude knowledge, technical support and quality of service in a timely manner 5) Sales- Total dollar amount collected for goods and services provided. While payment is not necessary for recognition of sales on company financial statements, there are strict accounting guidelines stating when sales can be recognized. The basic principle is that a sale can only be recognized when the transaction is already realized, or can be quite easily realized. This means that the company should have already received a payment, or the chances of receiving a payment are high. In addition, delivery of the good or service should have taken place for the sale to be recognized. ) Human resources- is a term used to describe the individuals who make up the workforce of an organization, although it is also applied in labor economics to, for example, business sectors or even whole nations. Human resources is also the name of the function within an organization charged with the overall responsibility for implementing strategies and policies relating to the management of individuals. Task 3 I will tell now, what makes Tesco and Forestry Commission similar an d what makes them different. Firstly, they both have General Director, and he has helpers. But in Forestry Commission General Director has more employees (they are: 3 directors and other staff members), however in Tesco, Director has just one helper. Secondly, this two organizations have two different, smaller parts. Tesco has broken down on process and North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service by Location. Last thing which I want to say is that, they have the same type of organization – it’s â€Å"Tall†. They have many levels and lines, which helps them to control their business. P4 â€Å"explain how their style and organization helps them to fulfill their purpose†

Information Technology And Some Infrastructure Challenges Information Technology Essay

Information Technology And Some Infrastructure Challenges Information Technology Essay To successfully implement an information technology infrastructure into an organization, it is critical that all levels work and plan together, and that the planning performed be proactive and strategic. Some components of the infrastructure may require an upgraded or be deleted; however, some components may not. Certain information about information systems, interaction, and processes, once collected, organized, and comprehended, can form an essential component of infrastructure which will outlive many of the upgrades to equipment and software. The focus of this paper is to explain what managerial roles does information system support, how has the Internet improved supply chain problems, list and describe the components of IT infrastructure that firms need to manage, name and describe the management challenges posed by IT infrastructure, and finally define Open-Source software. Management Roles Managers continue to perform critical roles in todays organizations. They have a wide variety of responsibilities ranging from decision making, compiling data, making reports, to coordinating meetings. To understand managerial role better, we must look at both the classical and contemporary models of managerial behavior. Classical Model Henri Fayol was one of the most significant providers to modern concepts of management, having stated that the five primary functions of management were planning, organizing, coordinating, deciding, and controlling (Rushing, 2010). Fayol believed management theories could be developed and then taught. Henri Fayol proposed that it is important to have unity of command. This concept that suggests there should be only one supervisor for each person in an organization. Fayol also suggested that management is a common human activity that applies equally well to and organization as it does to a family. This type of management theory was basically unchallenged from the 1920s through 1990s. The terms associated with Fayols management theory were of a formal nature rather than describe what a manager actually does in the performance of his job (Laudon Laudon, 2006). Contemporary Models The contemporary behavioral scientists had discovered that managers do not typically behave as the classical models had first implied. Behavioral models state that actual behavior of managers appear to be less systematic, more informal, less reflective, more reactive, less well organized, and much more frivolous than students of information systems and decision making generally expected it to be (Laudon Laudon, 2006, p. 87). Analyzing managers daily behaviors, Henry Mintzberg discovered that these actions could be classified into 10 managerial roles. Managerial roles can be described expectations of duties that should be performed by a manager in an organization. Mintzberg discovered that these roles could be broken down into three categories: interpersonal, informational, and decisional. Interpersonal Roles In general, interpersonal roles will be established by the type of position you hold in an organization. For example, lower level managers will have dissimilar interpersonal roles than middle management. The Interpersonal roles of a manager can be broken down into three categories: figurehead, leader, or a liaison. Figureheads within an organization speak for their companies to the outside world and carry out symbolic duties such as passing out awards to employees (Rushing, 2010). Additionally, there are numerous administrative tasks and they are also in the public and professional limelight. As a leader you are responsible for ensuring a safe and productive environment for your employees. The development of your department and your employees lies on the figureheads shoulders and they must be able to promote growth while at the same time steering clear of conflict. As a liaison you must be prepared to correspond with others. Liaisons not only report to upper management but will have to work with peers from other factions within an organization such as vendors, and even clients. The liaison is responsible for knowing who to get in touch with to get to the bottom of any situation. Informational Roles A monitor, disseminator, and spokesperson are the three informational roles that a manager may assume (Hartman, n.d.). These informational roles are created as a result of enacting the set of interpersonal roles already described. A network of interpersonal contacts with both subordinates and individuals outside the work unit serves to establish the manager as an informational nerve center of the unit, responsible for gathering, receiving, and transmitting information that concerns members of a specific department. A manager takes on the monitor role by constantly scanning the environment for information or activities and events that may identify opportunities or threats to the organization. Much of the managers gathering of information is accomplished through the network of contacts established through the interpersonal roles. The information a manager gathers as a monitor must be evaluated and transmitted as appropriate to members of the organization. The transmittal of information by a manager activates the disseminator role. Privileged information may be disseminated to subordinates, peers, or superiors in the organization. Occasionally, a manager must take on the role of a spokesperson by speaking on behalf of the department to people inside or outside the organization. This might involve lobbying for critical resources or appealing to individuals who have influence on activities that affect the work unit (Wren, 2005). Decisional Roles Both interpersonal and informational roles are really preludes to what are often considered to be a managers most important set of roles: the decisional roles of entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator (Laudon Laudon, 2006). The entrepreneur role comes into action when the manager seeks to improve the work unit (Rushing, 2010). This can be accomplished by adapting new techniques to fit a particular situation or modifying old techniques to improve individual or group activity. Managers usually learn of new or innovative methods through information gathered in the monitor role. Whereas the entrepreneur role establishes the manager as the initiator of change, the disturbance handler role establishes the manager as a responder to change. Organizations, unfortunately, do not run so smoothly that managers are never called upon to respond to unwelcome pressures. In these cases, the manager is required to act quickly to bring stability back to the organization. When a manager is placed in the position of having to decide to whom and in what quantity resources will be dispensed, the resource allocator role is assumed. Resources may include money, time, power, equipment, or people. During periods of resource abund ance, this role can be easily performed by a manager. In most cases, however, organizations operate under conditions of resource scarcity; thus, decisions on the allocation of resources can be critical for the success of the work unit, division, or organization. As a decision maker, the manager must strive not only to appropriately match resources with subordinates but also to ensure that the distribution of resources is coordinated to effectively complete the task to be performed (Rushing, 2010). In addition to decisions concerning organizational changes, disturbances, and resources, the manager must enact a negotiator role. The process of negotiation is possible only when an individual has the authority to commit organizational resources. Hence, as managers move up the managerial hierarchy and obtain control over more resources, they become more involved in the negotiator role. Supply Chain Management Supply chain management (SCM) combines the art and science that goes into improving the way an organization discovers the components it needs to make a product or service and deliver it to its customers (Laudon Laudon, 2006). The idea of Supply Chain Management is built around two principal ideas. The first is that just about every product that reaches a customer represents the collective effort of multiple organizations. Together these organizations are referred as the supply chain. The second idea is that although supply chains have been around for a long time, many organizations have only paid attention to what was happening within their own organization. Few businesses understood and managed the entire chain of procedures that eventually delivered products to the final customer. The result was disorganized and often ineffective supply chains Internet and Supply Chains Supply chains in almost every business are at the start of a startling reinvention produced by the growth of the Internet. The change extends beyond performance advancements and efficiencies acquired from computerization and communication to incorporate brand new possibilities to create value. This new value results from coordinated supply chains that can extend to larger markets and shape goods and services to meet the customers needs and new products and services that adjust to the highly competitive and increasing environmental needs. The Internet alters the way in which supply chains are managed, designed and controlled. The information, choices and practices that form Supply Chain Management are shifting to the Internet, breaking old ideas and widening company boundaries. This common ground will be where entire supply chains truly can be synchronized. New unknown specialist providers of both virtual and physical activities will create their own exclusive roles in the new infrast ructure. In this ever changing environment, supply chain capabilities will be essential. But gaining those crucial competitive resources will not take place through the typical supply chain ideas of today (Challenges facing supply chain management, 2008). Internet Technology for Integrating Business Processes Information technology (IT) has always been utilized to handle exchanges of goods, services, and information between organizations. With the arrival of Internet-based business-to-business (B2B) electronic markets, on the other hand, real opportunities for online transactions have begun to open up (Samson, 2010). The emerging internet was definitely an unpredictable development. All the same, important operating criteria such as reliability, local structures and robustness always came to the fore. As a result, users had the opportunity to get access to a highly available international data network that stays operative even in case of a breakdown of some single nodes. One important aspect of globalization is concentration. As a logical consequence, international companies have to merge or to collaborate with each other to meet the requirements for a global distribution of their goods and services. In a networked economy, these enterprises are bound to unseal some parts of their IT infr astructure to allow the engaged parties an exchange of product and accounting data as well as current status information in order to sustain the supply chain. Furthermore, employees need improved business applications with enhanced functionalities to manage their all-day work. These applications replenish existing legacy systems by degrees. Long-ranging, these enhancements result in a heterogeneous network of computers and applications, as all those components require each other and have to be consolidated. In the context of integrating distributed business application systems, the vision of redundancy and robustness was not resumed consequently: A changing business environment results in new technical developments and increasing demand of IT supported execution of business processes (Needle, 2009). IT Infrastructure Information technology infrastructure can be defined as the tangible hardware used to link computers and users (Laudon Laudon, 2006). Infrastructure may include transmission media and other instruments that direct transmission paths. Infrastructure can also consist of the software that is used to send, receive, and manage transmitted signals. Additionally, infrastructure can refer to interconnecting hardware and software and not to computers and other devices that are interconnected. On the other hand, to some IT users, infrastructure is regarded as everything that maintains the continual flow and management of information. IT infrastructure today is comprised of seven major components: computer hardware platforms, operating system platforms, enterprise software applications, data management and storage, networking/telecommunications platforms, internet platforms, and consulting and system integration services (Samson, 2010). Computer Hardware Platforms The physical part of the computer is referred to as the computer hardware. This includes the digital circuitry, which is different than the computer software that executes within the hardware (Laudon Laudon, 2006). The hardware of a computer is rarely changed as compared to the computer software and data, which are soft in the sense that they are quickly created, tailored or deleted from the computer. The microprocessor is the core of any computing device. The two major companies that manufacture most microprocessing chips are Intel and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). Standard tests of the AMD chip alongside the Intel Celeron chip have shown that the AMD chip was better in performance. Operating System Platforms An operating system is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all the other programs in a computer. The other programs are called applications or application programs. The application programs make use of the operating system by making requests for services through a defined application program interface (API). In addition, users can interact directly with the operating system through a user interface such as a command language or a graphical user interface (GUI) (Greer, 2009). Enterprise Software Applications The goal of enterprise software applications is to integrate applications into seamless processes throughout an organization. The two most popular applications in this group are customer relationship management and supply chain management systems. Business processes that have traditionally been optimized for internal efficiency can now add the element of superior customer service, tailored to each customer, inspiring the skills of trained agents in the call center. Back office processes are greatly improved with better information from the customer. Additionally, agents can slowly decrease the flow of paper, in favor of more efficient communication avenues such as e-mail and the web (von der Weth Starker, 2010). Data Management and Storage Organizations are collecting increasingly more data on its customers, employees, and even the organization itself. Being able to manage and storing the data so that it is readily accessible and supply meaningful information to the organization is developing into a discipline in and of itself (Laudon Laudon, 2006). Storage area networks (SANs) provide an organized, cost-effective way to combine data from across any system within the organization. Online users want direct access to data and SANs help organizations with a way to provide it. Networking/Telecommunications Platforms As we continue towards a completely digital world, networking and telecommunications platforms will begin to merge together. Instead than having a platform for networking computers and devices and a separate platform for telecommunications, we will begin to see businesses providing a combination of computers and peripheral devices, handheld PDAs telephone services, cell phone services, and wireless services all packaged together into one. A myriad of telecommunications companies have already merged with Internet service providers to provide complete digital service packages (Eren, Subasi, Coskun, 2008). Internet Platforms The Internet and subsequent technology continue to develop the services businesses are able to offer their employees, customers, suppliers, and other business partners (Laudon Laudon, 2006). Intranets and extranets constructed on Internet technologies provide businesses an easy and economical way of providing services that were extremely expensive just a few years ago. Many small and medium-sized businesses are using Web hosting services instead of purchasing new hardware necessary to support Web sites, intranets, and extranets. Its more cost effective and easier to have these service-providers manage hardware, software, and security issues, leaving the organization to concentrate on its primary processes. Consulting and System Integration Services Systems used in many large organizations are so complicated that its almost impossible to manage them by alone. Integration services offered by the companies like IBM and Hewlett-Packard are essential in keeping up with all the changes. In various ways it makes more sense for a company like Nike to focus on its core processes of making sports apparel and let a company like IBM take care of the technology issues. These services become more vital as many organizations combine their old legacy systems with newer technologies such as wireless networking. The old legacy systems merely cant be thrown away but must work flawlessly with todays newest technologies. Some organizations prefer not to completely replace legacy systems because its not cost effective, requires large amounts of training, and causes too much change in the organization. Its simpler to use middleware and other technologies to combine new and old systems (Schmidt, Otto, Osterle, 2010). Management Challenges Developing and managing a sound IT infrastructure raises multiple challenges: making wise infrastructure investments, coordinating infrastructure components, dealing with scalability and technology changes, and management and governance. Infrastructure Investments Just like investments in home remodeling often fail to provide a significant return on investment (ROI), it is frequently the case with investments in superior IT infrastructure components. IT Managers are constantly under the gun to decrease costs in order to fund new projects or to meet cost-reduction goals. Managers should make decisions to prevent overspending on component parts of the organizations computer systems. For example, high reliability storage, will offer little value if matched with servers or network connections of lower reliability. A string of high reliability components may surpass the necessities of the service they support. Any time the performance of any component notably goes above the requirements the incremental savings is pointless (Laudon Laudon, 2006). Coordinating Infrastructure Components Todays organizations develop IT infrastructures by choosing a variety of wholesalers, people, and technology services and fit them together so that they work as a whole (Samson, 2010). Because each part of the whole IT infrastructure has its own priorities, managing them collectively can be quite difficult. Some components of infrastructure will need to be upgraded or are subject to upgrade or replaced, as is with most components of computing systems. However, some components are not. Specific information about information systems and associated processes can form an essential component of infrastructure which will outlive many upgrades of equipment or software. Dealing with Scalability and Technology Changes In general terms, scalability refers to the ability of a system to maintain, if not improve, its average performance as the number of clients grows (Laudon Laudon, 2006). As an organization continues to grow, it can quickly out grow its infrastructure. On the other hand, if an organization downsizes, they may be stuck with an infrastructure that is too big and expensive to keep running. Every component of the infrastructure has some kind of management or operational overhead associated. Therefore, it is imperative that the organization recognizes these changes and takes appropriate actions to keep the organization moving forward. Management and Governance One of the most vital tasks for successful information management is developing the business governance over its program and related projects (Wren, 2005). Governance will apply a priority to the often-conflicting organizational pressures. It will take organizational plans and goals and help to form them into bounded endeavors. However, many organizations battle to get their governance programs up and running. They cant acquire interest, and they are in need of ideas to discuss after the initial objective is created. Information Systems and Ethical Issues Information systems introduce new and often complex ethical issues (Carroll Buchholtz, 2006). This is very true today because of the challenges created by the Internet and e-commerce to the safeguard of privacy and intellectual property. New ethical issues caused by vast use of information systems include creating accountability for the consequences of information systems, establishing standards to safeguard system quality that look after the safety of individuals and society, and upholding values and establishments considered vital to the quality of life in an information world. Whether you manage your own company or work in a large business, youll be facing these issues, and youll need to know how to handle them. Open-Source Software Open-source software (OSS) is computer software that is created by a cooperation of several thousand programmers worldwide (Chan Husted, 2010). Some open source software is accessible within the public domain. The term open-source software was derived as part of a marketing campaign for free software. Open-source software is based on the premise that it is superior to commercially produced proprietary software because thousands of programmers around the world working for no pay can read, perfect, distribute, and modify the source code much faster , and with more reliable results , than small teams of programmers working for a single software company (Laudon Laudon, 2006, p. 209). Advantages Open-source software experts have identified several advantages and disadvantages. The key advantage for an organization is that open-source software is an excellent way for companies to attain better market penetration. Organizations that present open-source software are able to create an industry standard and, therefore, gain an advantage over its competition. Additionally, it has helped create loyalty to the developers. In turn, the developers feel a sense of empowerment and ownership of the end product. Furthermore, less marketing and logistical services costs are required for OSS. Also, it helps organizations to keep up on of all technology developments. Another advantage is that it is an excellent tool to market an organizations image, incorporating its commercial products. The open-source software development method has produce reliable, high quality software rapidly and at a much lower cost. Likewise, it offers the promise for a more adaptable technology and quicker improveme nt. The mix of different perspectives, business objectives, and personal goals helps speed up innovation. Additionally free software can be developed in concurrence with entirely technical requirements. Open-source software does not entail considering about commercial demands that tends to degrade the software quality (Chan Husted, 2010). Disadvantages On the other hand, it can be argued that the open-source development process may not be as clear and that some system testing and documentation may be overlooked. Nonetheless this is usually only true for smaller jobs. Bigger, successful jobs tend to define and impose, as a minimum, some rules because they are needed to ensure good teamwork. In the most complex projects these rules may be as strict as reviewing even minor change by two independent developers. Even though many companies like IBM and Sun Microsystems support open source software there are no great financial interest involved.   A majority of the developers and advocates of free source software tend to believe in an unrealistic society that does not involve intellectual property rights   Therefore most of the applications are not dependable and you cannot run essential business operations on them. Another disadvantage is that once you choose to use open-source software you are on your own.   Although there is a lot of help available on the Web, there is no real skilled support available.   Basically, you have to learn how to install and use applications on your own, without damaging your data and hardware. There are no documents and manuals made available to help you since the software is being constantly being changed (Chan Husted, 2010). An additional drawback is that most of the open-source applications are not compatible with some of todays devices (Chan Husted, 2010). For example, there is no such thing as plug and play hardware when you are using open-source operating systems.   Occasionally it is hard to get modems to work with open source operating systems. Finally, technical support is more expensive compared to commercial software (Chan Husted, 2010). People who offer support for open-source software count on earning lots of money to provide support and in fact this is the only income model alleged in support of the open source software movement.